Research progress in growth differentiation factor 15 and cardiovascular diseases

Growth-differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) is a distant member of the transforming growth factor-β cytokine superfamily. In myocardium, GDF-15 is weakly expressed under physiological conditions. However, its expression level is increased in response to pathological stress. Growing evidence indicates that the elevated level of GDF-15 is a promising prognostic biomarker in cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, GDF-15 exhibits the properties of endogenous anti-hypertrophy of cardiomyocytes and protecting the heart from ischemia and reperfusion insult.